The Communicative Language Teaching Method - 792 Words

The Communicative Language Teaching method, or CLT, is a product of the theory of communicated competence in language teaching. Communicative competence focuses on the ability of learners to comprehend and be comprehensible with a certain degree of fluency. The advent of communicative competence signaled a change from the prevailing theory of linguistic competence which focused more on the form and structure of language. However, although CLT heavily focuses on communication with the belief that the purpose of language is the ability to use it, it does not do this to the exclusion of the form and function. In CLT, grammar and vocabulary are learned as a result of the communication rather than through direct instruction. In classroom use CLT does not have strict methodical guidelines but rather creates a framework for instruction. CLT is a very learner centered process with heavy student to student interaction and nearly exclusive use of the target language. Students learn through a variety of social interactions or communication events created by the teacher to meet real world needs. In CLT the teacher acts as a guide and an advisor and relies on authentic teaching materials (i.e. newspaper, radio, etc.) over textbooks. Evaluation of student progress can be for accuracy or fluency. During communication events errors are allowed but observed and correction is introduced in the class setting, not just to the individual, at a later time. Improved communicativeShow MoreRelatedCommunicative Language Teaching and Audio-Lingual Method3681 Words   |  15 PagesBari Communicative Language Teaching and Audio-Lingual Method: Definition Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is an approach to the teaching of second and foreign languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. It is also referred to as â€Å"communicative approach to the teaching of foreign languages† or simply the â€Å"Communicative Approach.† The Audio-Lingual Method, or the Army Method, is a style of teaching used in teaching foreign languages. ItRead MoreCommunicative Approach1566 Words   |  7 PagesLANGUAJE TEACHING : THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROCHE I. Problems in the present English teaching and causes of these problems II. Introduce the communicative approach 1. The definition of communicative approach 2. Two principles of communicative approach †¢ Create a realistic situation †¢ The class should be students-centered III. Adopt communicative approach to improve students ability to listen and speak, and achieve the goal of English teaching 1. Three stages in communicative teachingRead MoreWhat Links Theory Into Practice Within The Classroom1647 Words   |  7 PagesMethodology in EFL language teaching can be characterized in a number of ways. It is believed that methodology is what links theory into practice within the classroom. There are many different teaching methods that can be used in the classroom; in this essay I will compare and contrast the traditional grammar translation method, the communicative teaching approach and the audio-lingual method and the communicative approach and how they impact in the classroom environment. Deciding which method is best forRead MoreCommunicative Language Testing1187 Words   |  5 PagesTeaching and testing are so closely interrelated. It is obvious that the development of different theories and approaches of language learning and teaching also affects the history of language testing. Therefore, it is common to see evolution of both language teaching and language testing. There has been a shift from analytical to integrative approach in both language teaching and language testing falling into three stages: ⠝â€" Grammar –translation ⠝â€" Structural Read MoreCommunicative Language Teaching ( Clt ) Approach1367 Words   |  6 PagesThe field of second language learning has undergone, in the past few decades, many changes. Nonetheless, from a variety of methods that have come and gone, one has been adopted as pioneer, which is the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach. Nowadays, in fact, Communicative Language Teaching is one of the most common teaching methods adopted by teachers of second and foreign languages all over the world. Its origin can be found in the late 1960s early 1970s in the British academic systemRead MoreEclectic Approach1425 Words   |  6 PagesUSING ECLECTIC APPOACH FOR FUTURE TEACHING Nowadays, English has become the Global language. It is the language of science, technology, economic, etc. As a result, learning English has become an essential need for everyone. While learners try their best to reach their goal of successful communicator in foreign language, teachers find ways to make language teaching effective. In this fashion, considering and choosing the right way in teaching is prior thing for all of teachers and I am not an exceptionRead MoreThe Pedagogical Aspects Of Communicative Language Teaching984 Words   |  4 PagesCommunicative Language Teaching This essay will take just a peek at some of the pedagogical aspects of Communicative Language Teaching and the teachers therein. As the U. K. entered the common market (EEC) in the early 1970s. A sharp rise in demand from our new European neighbours for The English Language landed on our shores. Due to the modernization of secondary schools not only in Europe but indeed worldwide, languages were a hot commodity and many were on offer, English being most sort afterRead MoreThe Audio Lingual Method For Teaching English Language Learners1508 Words   |  7 Pages A variety of researched methods for teaching English Language Learners (ELLs) exist and most of them tend to claim communicative language use as their main goal, but this goal is not clearly evident in every method that claims it due in part to differences that arise from linguistic focuses versus psychological viewpoints. Of the various methods we have studied, the Audio-Lingual Method (ALM), Community Language Learning (CLL), and Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) are noteworthy for the similaritiesRead MoreThe Evolution of Second- and Foreign- Lan guage Teaching1662 Words   |  7 PagesSecond- and Foreign- Language Teaching (The 19th and 20th Century and The New Era of Second Language Teaching) In his treatment of the historical developments in language pedagogy, Stern (1992) isolates three ways in which language pedagogy has aimed to renew and improve itself:1. Innovation through change in teaching methods; 2. Innovation through language-related sciences and research; 3. Technological innovation. During the nineteenth century, the Grammar-Translation Method with its emphasisRead MoreCommunicative Language Teaching ( Clt ) Essay772 Words   |  4 PagesELT approaches led to the emergence of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) that focuses on the semantic aspects of the language and fluency in the target language acquisition. Communicative Language Teaching is aâ€Å"hybrid approach to language teaching, essentially ‘progressive’ rather than ‘traditional’ (Wright, 2000). It is based on the theory that the principal function of language learning is communication. Hence the most fundamental principle of communicative approach is to make the learners engage

Are Holidays with Pay a Human Right - 2496 Words

I will argue that is it not plausible to have a human right to regular holidays with pay. It fails to be a human right because it is alienable, it is not universal, it is (redundant) not fundamental to our personhood and impossible to fulfill, therefore, it cannot be claimed or impose duties on others. I will elaborate on these five characteristics necessary for an interest to be considered a human right. I will then compare this (these) criteria to the idea of having regular holidays with pay as a human right. Having denied that paid holidays is not a human right, I will explain that paid holidays are issues of social justice and not human rights. Lastly, four objections and answers will be discussed. (Elaborate a bit on this – list†¦show more content†¦Likewise, if it is impossible for something to do done, it cannot be claimed a right (Cranston, 50). The above criteria will help guide and illustrate what rights are stringent enough to be recognized as human rights. I cited the rights to life, liberty and security necessary to exercising our personhood and living a satisfactory life; such examples are often cited as civil and political rights. There also exists (exist) economic, social and cultural rights such as the right to regular holidays with pay. I will argu e that the right to regular holidays with pay fails in being a human right because it is neither inalienable or universal, not essential to our personhood and since it is impossible to fulfill (impossible to provide everyone in the world with paid holidays), it cannot impose duties on others or be claimed. If the right to regular holidays with pay were to be a human right, the right to claim it would apply to all people, at all times and in all situations. In a similar fashion, the duty would fall onto all people, individuals would have an associated negative duty not to intervene with my paid holidays but the positive duty to ensure employers upheld this standard would fall onto the state or international arena. *try shortening the previous sentence. This right would be violated if a remedy was not provided by the offending party if and when vacation time was interfered with, prohibited and/or neglected by individuals andShow MoreRelatedHuman Resource Management For Service Industr ies1675 Words   |  7 PagesLondon College UCK BTEC HND Diploma in Human Resource Management for Service Industries HNHM 109/ HNTT 118:Human Resource Management for Service Industries Analyze the role and purpose of human resource management in a selected service industry. Justify a human resources plan based on an analysis of supply and demand for a selected service industry business Submitted by: Name: Mary Ann Streling Read MoreHr Assignment1659 Words   |  7 Pageswish to make specific reference to your jurisdiction’s laws addressing employment standards, occupational health and safety, and human rights. * Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act * Managers must make sure that they comply with this act’s ten principles in regard to maintaining the standards for privacy. According to this act, the human resource department and the company are responsible for safeguarding the privacy of employees. According to this Act, employerRead MoreThe Obligations That Employers Have Under Current Legislation1135 Words   |  5 Pagesfuture employees, relating to compensation. These responsibilities are codified under federal laws: You must pay at least the minimum wage (unless the employee receives tips or is somehow not subject to minimum wage. the wages of the department assistant is $14.75 per hour. They review it and increase it every year. The managers has yearly package. Holidays: New world is open on public holidays except Christmas Eve. Leave: after 3 months of trial period the annual leave hours start adding for someoneRead MoreThe Eu Minimum Holiday Time1209 Words   |  5 Pageshaving a fair amount of holiday time. The EU minimum holiday time is 5 weeks. A company could offer a bonus structure for holiday entitlement, for example if you work for the company for over 3 years you can get an extra week’s holiday time annually. This will encourage staff to stay for long periods of time so that they can get more time to spend with family. This will increase staff’s happiness and therefore they will not want to leave their job due to the extra holiday time they will be receivingRead MoreHoliday Decision Making1012 Words   |  5 PagesName: LÆ °Ã† ¡ng Thà  nh Long Class: FB3A CONSUMER BEHAVIOR AND HOLIDAY I- Holiday decision-making is different from the traditional problem-solving model of consumer decision-making: 1) The traditional problem-solving model of consumer decision-making: * Behind the visible act of making a purchase lies a decision process that must be investigated. * The purchase decision process is the stages a buyer passes through in making choices about which products and services to buyRead MoreThe Meaning Of Reasonable Accommodations For Religious Practices952 Words   |  4 PagesThe Meaning of Reasonable Accommodations for Religious Practices The meaning of reasonable religious accommodations in accordance with the Civil Rights Act, Title VII 1964 legislation can at times seem perplexing. A reasonable accommodation is an adjustment to the work environment that will allow an employee to comply with their religious practices or beliefs according to the EEOC.gov website. The word â€Å"reasonable† is a word that can be loosely interpreted in different ways. Orthodox Jews Read MoreThe Civil Rights Act Of 1964843 Words   |  4 Pagesofficers, supervisors and managers to implement these practices in order to experience the full value of an intelligent and diverse team, this policy brief presents the background, research and recommendations on religious holiday leave. CONTEXT Title V11 of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, prohibits employers from discriminating against individuals because of their religion (or lack of religious belief) in hiring, firing, or any other terms and conditions of employment. The law also prohibits jobRead MoreIs Winchester College An Independent Boarding Boys? Essay931 Words   |  4 PagesWinchester College make safer recruitment decisions and prevent unsuitable people from working with children. It is critical that both Payroll and HR departments are aware of the legal obligations related to processing payroll and the management of human resources in Winchester College. This report compares existing employee contracts and workplace processes with legislative requirements and assesses where Winchester College could be at risk for not complying with these requirements. SpecificallyRead MoreInternational Covenant On Civil And Political Rights1027 Words   |  5 Pagesit can be determined that human rights violations occurred in the case of Biff and the rest of the elves at the factory in the North Pole. In his letter, Biff describes being forced into labor, receiving little pay, and being confined to the factory each day. The conditions described by Biff do not reflect standard or acceptable labor practices, and it is evident that Santa Claus’s factory did not follow peremptory norms or the conditions presented in certain human rights conventions that the NorthRead MoreRai Hr Assessment1282 Words   |  6 PagesRecording, Analysing and Using Human Resources Information Activity 1 There are a number of reasons why we, as an HR team, collect different types of data. One of them is: meeting legal requirements. In order to satisfy legal obligations we collect such information as contract arrangements, employees’ duties, payments, working hours, holiday entitlements, bonuses, as well as documents relating to health and safety. It is important for the organization to timely provide accurate and valid

Importance of Employability Skill Provision †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Importance of Employability Skill Provision. Answer: Introduction: The paper enhances the clarity of the readers regarding the models related to the competency skills. The focus of the paper is on the factors, which heavily affects the competency needed for the development of employability skills. The paper also highlights the ways in which the preconceived skills, expertise and knowledge of the employees can be enhanced (Jackson 2014). Collection of data from 1008 business undergraduates validates the fact that employees in the present workplace fail to execute the allocated duties and responsibilities according to the expectations of the industry. For analyzing the results, the technique of multiple regression has been used. The action of testing the competency models can be considered as an evaluation regarding the method, which would prove beneficial in terms of preparing the business undergraduates for carrying out the allocated duties and responsibilities in an efficient and effective manner. In view of this perspective, testing the competency skills of the employees is a wise approach of the managers in terms of assessing the employees capability to adjust within the provided workplace environment (Jackson 2014). This evaluation and assessment is important in terms of estimating its outcome on the stakeholders. This estimation is crucial for making noticeable advances towards initiation of the business activities. Delving deep into the aspect, this assessment nullifies the derived fact that nowadays the business undergraduates fail to expose performance according to the industrial requirements. The article assesses the loopholes in the employability skills exposed by the business graduates. The article unleashes the transfer of employability skills through the proposition of graduate employability model. Empirical analysis is used for measuring the outcomes of the skills exposed by the business graduates. One of the main projections of the article is the vain efforts of the business school personnel in terms of transferring the necessary skills to the business graduates by taking into consideration the outcomes of the tests conducted (Jackson 2013). Models applied in the article have been tested for assessing their effect on the workplace environment and the personnel struggling to prove their employability skills. Theoretical perspective adds value to the process of recruitment and selection used in the workplace. Testing the application of the theories and models can be considered as the attempt of the personnel in terms of assessing the effectiveness, appropriateness and feasibility of the exposed behavior. This assessment justifies their role in terms of adding to the workforce. Consciousness towards organizing this self-assessment is the urge of the personnel towards the application of rational thinking into the execution of the allocated duties and responsibilities. Herein lays the appropriateness of the phrase, where are we going wrong. The question mark can be related with the self-interrogation in terms of the successful execution of the business activities especially recruiting the rightful candidates (Jackson 2013). This article enhances the clarity of the readers regarding the perceptions of the students about the importance of the employability skills. Limitations of the undergraduate programs gain prominence in the article. The article inspires the business graduates to take assurance from buy-in for getting access to the provided skills. Student perceptions are examined, which helps the researcher to deduce the relative importance of skill and demographic details (Jackson 2013). As a matter of specification, mathematical calculations have been used and rated for the ease of the businesspersons. Along with this, the article upholds the perceptions of the stakeholders, which validates the context. Viewing it from other perspective, team-work possesses enough flexibility in terms of making up for the fissures in the employability skills needed by the employees for the execution of the allocated duties and responsibilities. In comparison to the recruited employees, there has been less number of undergraduate programs. This aspect reflects the difficulties of the business graduates in terms of proving the gained employability skills. Assuring the business graduates to take help from buy-in can be considered as an attempt towards making up for the gaps and fissures (Jackson 2013). Consideration of the demographic background is the first step of this initiative. This is because knowing the background from which the business graduates come, helps in providing relevant materials and training to the business graduates. The article reflects the perspective of the students in terms of the preparedness of the business graduates regarding the exposure to the workplace environment. One of the most important facts of the article is the debate of the business critiques regarding the capability of the business graduates to expose proper employability skills. Within this, most of the educational institutions with high school curriculum are included. The article becomes the mouthpiece of the business graduates in terms of reporting the fact that they are not ready for penetrating into the workplace (Tymon 2013). The article undertakes an explorative approach for reflecting the limited alignment between the students and the stakeholders. Consideration of the perspective of the students is the attachment of valuation to their attempts regarding the enhancement of professional development. Inclusion of high schools in this context is apt in terms of exposing the business graduates to the real workplace scenario. Along with this, consideration of the perspectives of government, employers and the personnel of the higher educational institutions seems beneficial regarding their contribution towards adding meaning to the employment of the business graduates (Tymon 2013). Attachment of theoretical context in this direction is perfect in terms of enlivening the specific dynamism of the recruitment and selection process undertaken in the workplace. The article explores the importance of employability skills in the UK labor market. This is done through case study references of the candidates pursuing graduate courses in business and management studies. Rationale offering by the policy makers is the main highlight of the article. The components of this rationale are catering to the needs and requirements of the highly skilled labours (Wilton 2011). One of the main attractions of the article is the upgradation of the standards and quality of the academic and professional opportunities for the candidates belonging to the lower strata of society. The discourse of the article conjoins the rationalistic hypothesis in a simplified manner. In the current competitive ambience of the market, generation of proper employability skills is vital for the companies and organizations in terms of achieving success. Questioning the importance and relevance of the employability skills attaches an interrogative parameter to the recruitment and selection process undertaken by the companies and organizations (Wilton 2011). This interrogation can be correlated with the specified hypothesis, both the positive and the negative ones. Collection of relevant data from the candidates pursuing graduation courses validates the positive hypothesis. This validation reduces the intensity of the negative hypothesis. The synthesis of the positive and the negative hypothesis results in the assumption that traditionalism is an obstacle towards the achievement of success, irrespective of the extent to which the business graduates attempt to enhance their employability skills. Countering this, exercising creative innovation enables the business gradua tes to come up with something, which alters the fate of the company and organization, keeping the traditional aspects intact. The generalization of the previous sentence nullifies the limitations of the threshold of UK (Wilton 2011). References and bibliography Jackson, Denise. "Business graduate employabilitywhere are we going wrong?."Higher Education Research Development32, no. 5 (2013): 776-790. Jackson, Denise. "Student perceptions of the importance of employability skill provision in business undergraduate programs."Journal of Education for Business88, no. 5 (2013): 271-279. Jackson, Denise. "Testing a model of undergraduate competence in employability skills and its implications for stakeholders."Journal of Education and Work27, no. 2 (2014): 220-242. Myers, Michael D.Qualitative research in business and management. Sage, 2013. Sekaran, Uma, and Roger Bougie.Research methods for business: A skill building approach. John Wiley Sons, 2016. Soul, Helen, and Tatyana Warrick. "Defining 21st century readiness for all students: What we know and how to get there."Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts9, no. 2 (2015): 178. Tymon, Alex. "The student perspective on employability."Studies in higher education38, no. 6 (2013): 841-856. Wilton, Nick. "Do employability skills really matter in the UK graduate labour market? The case of business and management graduates."Work, employment and society25, no. 1 (2011): 85-100.

Racial Injustices and the Cost of Civil War The African American Perspective

Introduction The American Civil War continues to engage historians and mainstream commentators alike, as they endeavour to understand the real meaning and essence of slavery, race, and violence that characterize the nation’s history. While much has been written about the specific battles and the officers involved, less is known about the role of African American soldiers who took up arms to free themselves, their families, and their fellow slaves from the entrapment of slavery (Roberts 1455).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Racial Injustices and the Cost of Civil War: The African American Perspective specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Arguably, less is also known about the price the enslaved people had to pay in the achievement of freedom through warfare rather than peacetime processes, and also how racial injustices perpetuated by whites during the Civil War and Reconstruction era inflated the cost paid by people of African ancestry (Schwalm 21). Owing to the fact that academic interest in the Civil War has grown substantially in recent years, it is of immense importance to look into the racial injustices and the cost of Civil War from the African American perspective, with the view to dispelling the commonly held perception by war historians that enslaved people were the beneficiaries of this war, rather than victims. Contextualising the Issue Soon after the eruption of the Civil War, leaders of black communities and well-known white abolitionists in the North insisted that blacks be permitted to enlist in the Union Army and pursue war rather than peacetime processes, with the view to paving the way towards the attainment of emancipation for slaves and enhanced rights for blacks. As the Northern white-dominated soldiers progressed into the antebellum South, hundreds of thousands of slaves escaped to the regions commanded by the Union Army, availing the Union with a prospective pool o f military resources and capability (Lee 429-430). Available literature shows that â€Å"over the course of the war, some 400,000 to 500,000 of the South’s 4 million enslaved people fled their masters to approach the Union army or Union lines† (Schwalm 22). A history scholar asserts that African Americans, most notably Frederick Douglas, requested for consent so that their people could fight from the first days of the Civil War (DeRoche 32). The federal government in general and the War Department in particular were ill-prepared to deal with the surge of black men, women and children who advanced toward Union troops, defences, border cities and other Union-occupied areas of the South, in large part because the initial instructions for the Union army from President Lincoln was to engage in the war while leaving slavery in one piece.Advertising Looking for essay on african american? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More It is clear from the reviewed war scholarship that white civilians and soldiers alike were astonished by the sheer determination of the enslaved people to achieve their independence and to support a war on slavery, hence allowed many black soldiers to enlist in the war though their justifications for doing so were often profoundly shaped by the racist ideologies of the mid-nineteenth century and a presumption to understand what would best serve the former slaves (Schwalm 22). It is documented that â€Å"the eagerness of African American men (free and enslaved) to fight as soldiers on behalf of the Union cause, and the army’s need for growing number of enlistments, culminated in the enlistment of close to 200,000 African Americans, three-quarters of them just out of slavery† (Schwalm 23). While such types of enlistments reinforced the Union’s dedication to emancipation and offered a promise of citizenship, it can be progressively argued that this newfound â€Å" freedom† would cost tens of thousands of black lives and entrench racial injustices even further, as demonstrated in subsequent sections. Wartime Emancipation and Misconception of Freedom Available war literature demonstrates that wartime emancipation was a direct consequence of two interrelated developments, namely â€Å"the gradual collapse of southern slavery under the worsening conditions created by the Confederate war effort and Union invasion, and [†¦] the destruction of slavery through the actions of enslaved people and the reluctant, haphazard evolution of federal and military policy towards emancipation† (Schwalm 21). Although enslaved people in the South had to come up with innovative ways to endure both developments if they were to achieve and enjoy their freedom, many did not when the war finally came to an end for the simple reason that most of the soldiers favoured emancipation for military justifications but not for racial or social equality (DeRoche 24). For instance, most Maine soldiers supported emancipation for the objectives that it would assist Southern whites financially, save the Union and improve Southern whites’ morality, rather than as a means to initiate racial equality (DeRoche 30). However, as witnessed by the works of Frederick Douglass and other former slaves and abolitionists, emancipation was fuelled by the promise of freedom and hope for social change. It was these tenets that saw Douglass urge African American men to fully support the Civil War, with the view to breaking the bonds of slavery (Moore Neal 4).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Racial Injustices and the Cost of Civil War: The African American Perspective specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Available wartime scholarship demonstrates that â€Å"during the Civil War millions of African Americans gained freedom – some with the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863 and the rest with the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865† (DeRoche 24). This particular author argues that while African American soldiers played a critical role in bringing freedom, the most instrumental factor in stopping the slavery was the white-dominated Northern armies. Other scholars argue that the Union and its white-dominated armies were not committed to ending slavery; rather, it was the war that increasingly weakened the ‘peculiar’ institution of the enslaved people to a point where they became actively determined to escape its grasp despite the main ills bedevilling them, including illness and malnutrition (Schwalm 22). Overall, however, while it is clear that slavery eventually collapsed under the heavyweight of the ongoing Civil War, scholars have exercised caution in insinuating that African Americans were able to achieve the level of freedom they so much desired. Dissecting the Racial Injustices It is documented in the literature that â€Å"most soldiers viewe d African Americans as peculiar at best, and many considered them inferior† (DeRoche 25). It is evident that attitudes of respect and concern for African Americans were extremely uncommon among the Whites, and only a few soldiers entered the army with unwavering conviction that African Americans were equal human beings. In the battlefront, â€Å"white soldiers appreciated African Americans contribution to the cause as soldiers but were not ready to treat them as equal people† (DeRoche 33). This predisposition perhaps explains why African Americans were denied voting rights immediately after the Civil War even after black soldiers significantly aided the cause of saving the Union. Indeed, available scholarship shows that although African Americans made trustworthy soldiers during the Civil War, they suffered discrimination-oriented setbacks that related to pay, clothing allowances, and weaponry (Moore Neal 4). Available scholarship shows how the Confederates perceived t he engagement of African American soldiers with disdain to such a level that they felt morally and spiritually absolved from any responsibility to treat black troops and their mostly abolitionist white officers as honourable opponents on the war front.Advertising Looking for essay on african american? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Indeed, one particular documentation portrays the racial picture in its right context by claiming that the Confederates were very keen on exterminating rebellious slaves and white abolitionist advocators as a warning to other blacks and also to keep in place a social and economic system grounded on racial subordination (Urwin 210). Racist policies on black soldiers continued on the war front. Compared to white soldiers in predominantly white army regiments, exceedingly few black soldiers in predominantly black regiments had access to â€Å"a full or qualified roster of medical officers, and surgeons attached to black regiments frequently treated their patients harshly and sometimes cruelly† (Schwalm 23). This author further acknowledges that while white nursing professionals could volunteer for service with white regiments, most could not do the same for black soldiers in predominantly black regiments, and the black women who would have willingly cared for their black counter parts were basically constrained to low-status jobs as laundresses and cooks. Black soldiers were more likely to be served by insufficient hospital facilities and were also far more likely to be assigned fatigue duty (Schwalm 23). However, despite all these racial prejudices and other operational setbacks such as lack of training and inadequate arms, black men fought as courageously as white soldiers to guarantee their freedom (Roberts 1457). The issue of racial lynching during and after the Civil War has received widespread attention in the literature. The lynching of African Americans was a travesty which begs to be addressed in the context of racial-related injustices. Recent scholarship on the subject has emphasised that â€Å"the draft riots, which included numerous mob beatings and hangings of African Americans, constitute merely the highest tide of reactionary racial violence in the North during the Civil War and Reconstruction† (Pfeifer 621). It should be recalled tha t racially-motivated violence against African Americans was not a new phenomenon in the 1860s as historical accounts depict how white southerners had jointly killed African Americans during the slavery era, engaging in extra-judicial executions by hanging and lynching at least forty-four black slaves in the South from 1824-1862 (Pfeifer 622). It is reported in the literature that lynching seized the attention of many Americans during and after the Civil War specifically because it was such an extraordinary savage and successful manner of disgrace and mortification directed against African Americans by whites (Brundage 28). Indeed, according to this particular author, the whites took part in the hanging and lynching of African Americans during this era due to their misplaced racial antipathy, patriarchal privilege, economic-oriented apprehensions, and religiously motivated sense of retributive justice that gave them the license to public aggression of almost unrestrained ferociousnes s against blacks. Although the whites would want to buy into the idea that lynching was done to punish lawbreakers or violators of the local custom, the blatant correlation between lynching and race, especially in the American South, removed any doubts about its role in reinforcing indiscriminate racial oppression (Brundage 28). Moving on, it is evident that the Confederacy may have perished at the epitome of the Civil War; however, the determination to maintain the white supremacy did not as witnessed by how the southern conservative whites struggled to gain control over the political and economic order that took shape during the Reconstruction era. In this period spanning over a decade, the conservative whites ejected black southerners from any meaningful participation in political life not only by creating and remorselessly enforcing a system of racial apartheid but also using extensive violence to maintain iron control over the African American labour force (Grimsley 7). Indeed, this author rightly suggests that the conservative whites throttled all momentous efforts by black southerners to carve out for themselves any enclave of economic independence, resulting in the continuation of racially-oriented injustices targeted against the former slaves and African American soldiers. Costs Associated With the Civil War for African Americans History scholars are of the opinion that slavery and racial injustices became much worse during the Civil War than in peacetime, with malnutrition, disease, and heightened violence increasing the suffering among the enslaved (Schwalm 22). As argued by scholars, wartime emancipation became a threat to the existence and survival of former slaves due to the severe conditions in refugee camps, which included lack of shelter, medical care, food, firewood and clothing, injuries related to the complicated escapes from slavery, as well as disease outbreaks such as diarrhoea, dysentery, malaria, cholera, typhoid, measles, mumps, small pox, yellow fever and tuberculosis (Lee 432; Schwalm 22). Indeed, it is reported that â€Å"because of the higher disease rates, black soldiers had frequent encounters with the army’s medical staff, which was overwhelmingly white, and largely shared the view that black humanity was different from and inferior to white counterparts† (Schwalm 24). Many of the former slaves had to pay the ultimate price of death in these contraband refugee camps due to miserable living conditions, sickness, and lack of the commonest necessities of life. Unlike the popular perception that black men experienced the brunt of the civil war, evidential documentation demonstrates that it was women and children who shouldered the difficulties associated with war. Indeed, while fugitive black men were employed as military labourers by the Union army, and hence were sometimes fed and housed despite being exposed to severe conditions and hard labour, the situation was severely wanting for women, ch ildren, the elderly and infirm, who were characteristically excluded from Union lines or removed to separate contraband camps to look for their resources. It is reported in the literature that black refugees suffered very high rates of illness and mortality during the war, with scholars asserting that one-quarter of the black civilian refugees in contraband camps may have perished (Schwalm 23). It is often argued that â€Å"the lack of army preparedness, the inadequate response by local officers who felt that civilian populations should not be their responsibility, and the racist treatment offered by many white officers and soldiers exacerbated the health crisis that the war brought to black refugees† (Schwalm 23). It has also been noted that the wartime casualty by disease was much higher for African American recruits than for white soldiers, with the significant causes of death reported being typhoid, smallpox, measles, diarrhoea, pneumonia, malaria and tuberculosis (Lee 43 4). Indeed, results from a study conducted by this author demonstrate that â€Å"disease was by far the predominant cause of wartime mortality for black men, accounting for 10 of every 11 deaths† (Lee 434). It is reported elsewhere that African American soldiers â€Å"suffered casualties that were 35%-50% greater than that of white soldiers, in spite of the fact that [they] were not permitted to serve in the Army until 18 months after fighting had begun† (Moore Neal 4). An analysis of the triggers of the health crises facing black soldiers revealed that slavery left black men weak and vulnerable to disease and that the poor living conditions experienced by black soldiers were also to blame. Indeed, black recruits were exposed to a multiplicity of poor working conditions that could have contributed to compromising their physical, mental and psychological health, such as lack of adequate and properly trained medical personnel in the black regiments, stationing of black soldiers at particularly unhealthy posts, excessively high fatigue duty, nutritional deficiencies, and unsympathetic treatment from white army commanders (Carson 740; Lee 434). It is also clear that the lynching phenomenon occasioned untold psychological and social costs to African Americans during and after the Civil War. It is documented in the literature that white-dominated lynches men â€Å"sought a form of summary justice that allowed for both popular participation and unlimited violence and humiliation† (Brundage 29). The lynch mobs exploited any available occasion to emphasise the symbolic humiliation of their victims and their race, particularly in light of the fact that they hanged their mostly African American victims on the same trees that had been used in previous lynchings, murdered their victims near black worshiping places, or even forced black communities to witness the killings. An analysis of this method of humiliation directed at African Americans by white s’ shows that it was aimed at conveying a message of degradation and innumerable psychological suffering of victims and their communities. For example, lynch mobs once dealt with a black man accused of murdering a white girl after the Civil War by cutting off his fingers and toes, pulling out his teeth with pliers, repeatedly stabbing him in the mouth using a pointed pole, castrating the black man to collect his testicles as souvenirs, and eventually incinerating him (Brundage 29). Such ritualised humiliation, mockery and morbid humour went a long way not only in disgracing the victims but also in adversely affecting the psychological and social orientations of African Americans as a community (Pfeifer 625). History scholars acknowledge the fact that African Americans continued to be directly affected by the political and economic costs of the Civil War many years later, and it took a second insurgency comprising Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s to effectively end the system (Grimsley 7-8). The former slaves continued to suffer political isolation and economic dependency long after the Civil War due to the deeply-held savagery convictions by many whites that African Americans did not deserve to be treated as equals. A sizeable number of assertive blacks who dared to press for political equality and economic freedom in the decades after the Civil War were killed savagely, at least until the Civil Rights Movement came into being (Urwin 210). Conclusion The present paper assesses the racial injustices and the cost of Civil War from an African American perspective, with the view to dispelling the commonly held viewpoint that enslaved people were the beneficiaries of this war, rather than victims. It has been well documented that the Confederacy and deeply entrenched slavery may have perished at the epitome of the Civil war, but African Americans neither got the freedom they so much desired, nor achieved integration in the country’s leadin g political and economic processes until much later. Cases of blatant racial injustices against black soldiers in the Union Army and blacks in refugee camps are evident of a system that wanted to maintain the status quo even after blacks volunteered in large numbers to join the war and assist to defeat the Confederacy. Most black soldiers lay down their lives for a just cause, but this paper has found that the favour was hardly returned due to racial injustices that continued as the Civil War was being fought and even afterwards during the Reconstruction era. The costs associated with the Civil War were immense for African Americans, as comprehensively discussed in this paper. Malnutrition, disease, heightened violence, mob lynchings, as well as political and economic segregation are some of the issues that blacks had to deal with as they manoeuvred their way around the Civil War. These issues downgraded the perceived â€Å"independence† that blacks had received after the def eat of mainstream slavery to a point whereby it would be prudent to argue that African Americans were victims of the Civil War, rather than beneficiaries. Overall, it is concluded that declaring emancipation as a war act and joining the Civil War to free the blacks from bondage may have been a necessary and perhaps inevitable act for black Americans; however, they ended up paying a high price and were short-changed in the context of attaining authentic freedom. Works Cited Brundage, W. Fitzhugh.†The Ultimate Shame: Lynch-Law in Post-Civil War American South.† Social Alternatives. 25.1 (2006): 28-32. Academic Search Premier. Web. Carson, Scott Alan. â€Å"African-American and White Inequality in the Nineteenth Century American South: A Biological Comparison.† Journal of Population Economics. 22.3 (2009): 739-755. Academic Source Premier. Web. DeRoche, Andrew J. â€Å"Freedom without Equality: Maine Civil War Soldiers Attitudes about Slavery and African Americans.à ¢â‚¬  UCLA Historical Journal. 16.1 (1996): 24-38. America: History and Life. Web. 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Schwalm, Leslie A. â€Å"Surviving Wartime Emancipation: African Americans and the Cost of Civil War.† Journal of Law, Medicine and Ethics. 39.1 (2011): 21-27. Academic Search Premier. Web. Urwin, Gregory J.W. â€Å"We cannot treat Negros†¦as Prisoners of War: Racial Atrocities and Reprisals in Civil War Arkansas.† Civil War History. 42.3 (1996): 193-210. America: History and Life. Web. This essay on Racial Injustices and the Cost of Civil War: The African American Perspective was written and submitted by user Emilio Mathis to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.